FROM PRODUCTION TO EMISSIONS: THE ROLE OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES IN SWEDEN’S ELECTRIC VEHICLE TRANSITION AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT : Review of the Environmental Impact of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles: Manufacturing, Use, and Disposal in Sweden

Sammanfattning

This study presents a comprehensive review of several reports and life‑cycle assessment (LCA) of nickel‑manganese‑cobalt (NMC) lithium‑ion batteries (LIBs) used in electric vehicles (EVs), with a specific focus on Sweden’s context. Through an extensive literature review—covering raw material extraction, manufacturing, operation, and end‑of‑life recycling—key environmental impacts were quantified. Mining one ton of lithium for lithiumion battery production via hard rock mining can generate up to 15 metric tons of CO₂ emissions. In the calculations, the average mining emissions were estimated at 19.8 kg CO₂eq/kWh. LIB production represented by electrode and cell assembly emit 79 kg CO₂‑eq/kWh on average. The Swedesh LIB producer, Northvolt, emit an average of 33 kg CO₂‑eq/kWh during the production processes. Operational phase analyses show EVs powered by the current EU grid mix produce between 66 and 87 g CO₂‑eq/km, a ~65 % reduction versus internal combustion engine vehicles, this are equivalent to 215 kg CO₂‑eq/kWh on average. End‑of‑life recycling via hydrometallurgy can cut greenhouse‑gas emissions by up to 61 %. Sweden’s leading battery producer, Northvolt, demonstrates a closed‑loop process using 50 % recycled content that reduces cell production emissions by 30 %. Globally, recycling of NMC LIBs is estimated to add an average of 15kg CO2 eq/kWh emissions to the atmosphere, however, in Sweden, end-of-Life activities generate approximately 1.194 kilograms of CO₂equivalent emissions for every kilogram of battery cell mass recycled by the pyrometallurgical treatment, equivalent to 4 kg CO₂‑eq/kWh on average. The findings underscore LIBs’ potential to decarbonize transportation, while highlighting critical stages—material sourcing, electricity mix for production and charging stations, and recycling efficiency—that determine overall sustainability.